Human Impact

Human Impact on the Mangroves

They are incredibly degraded and one of the most destroyed mangrove systems in the Indo- Pacific, including the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean). According the the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in the 1990s 2000 hectares of mangroves were lost annually in the Irrawaddy Delta, demonstrating how the mangroves have suffered alarming declines. (FAO 2000) Over 140,000 hectares have disappeared between 1924 and 2001. (WRM 2002)

In 1995

This photograph is a satellite image of the Irrawaddy Delta in 1995, where the dark red regions are the remaining mangrove forests and white regions show the degraded regions.

http://www.glomis.com/satellite/12.html

In 1999

This second image taken in 1999 gives new information on the remaining mangrove forests in this area, which are secondary in many regions, although after this year decline has continued rapidly.

http://www.glomis.com/satellite/12.html

   

      Deforestation for commercial logging, specifically teak, in the highland forests of Burma triggers landslides and soil erosion. An academic journal noted that timber is the third most valuable product from Burma, and 'one timber alone-teak- has been seriously exploited'. (Dudley Stamp, L. "Notes on the Vegetation of Burma"JSTOR: The Geographical  Journal, Vol. 64 No. 3 Sept. 1924: 231. 25 Nov. 2011 ) This exploitation has led to depletion of plant life in the mangroves along the river, causing further negative impact apart from over-exploitation of these resources. Once the forest is gone the soil run offs enter the river beds and cause sedimentation in the mangroves. In particular, the Irrawaddy River has the fifth largest sedimentation rate in the world, and today the rate is worsening because deforestation and agricultural erosion continue. It is maintained that they will disappear in less than fifty years if the rates that occurred between 1977 and 1986 continue. (FREDA)

     While the region is ecologically rich, it is economically poor and thus the boom in the charcoal industry in the 70s, due to the urban demand for a cheap cooking fuel, has led to degradation. Moreover liberalization from socialism in the 90s led to free enterprise, causing a boom in the prawn and fishing industries. (WRM 2002) Thus mangroves were converted into farms, and agricultural encroachment occurs.  Moreover the government promotes conversion of these areas into rice fields, prawn farms, and fish farms in order to create self-sufficiency in food production, as well as over-harvesting and over-exploitation of timber to produce fuelwood and higher sales. Their tyrannical military government is thus also contributing to the endangerment of these mangrove forests. (Primavera JH 1991)

Human Use of the Mangroves

     Shrimp farming is prominent in the region and began in the mid 1970s. In the Irrawaddy river, 33, 373 acres are farmed. The traditional farms are developed on inter-tidal land like mangrove areas, but shrimp disease problems that have emerged have economically impacted the farms. The Department of Fisheries is attempting to correct these problems by disease monitoring and testing facilities to pin point the cause of this problem.(DoF 2001)

Mud crab farming is also common in Myanmar in the Irrawaddy river and not incredibly detrimental since local low cost materials are used, contributing to trade, and the ecosystems are not destroyed. (DoF 2001)

History of the Forests

Historical State of the Forests

     Unfortunately, the coastal mangrove forests of Burma are some of the most degraded or destroyed mangrove systems in the Indian-Pacific Ocean region. Over 250,000 hectares of forests in the Burma region existed in the 1920s, whereas less than 115,000 hectares existed by 2000, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the US. Moreover, overexploitation for timber sales and firewood are causing major degradation of the region. After Cyclone Nargis hit in May of 2008, less than 40,000 hectares of forests remained in the Irrawaddy Delta area (according to the Post Nargis Joint Assessment Report done by the UN, ASEAN, and the Burmese regime). (Post Nargis Joint Assessment Report 2008)

     Furthermore, prawn and fish farms, deforestation in central Burma leading to soil erosion and sedimentation of the delta, conversion of mangroves to rice paddies, and over-harvesting of resources like firewood are causing further endangerment. Few places are directly protected, and even protected areas are not safe because of few resources and funding provided for law enforcement agencies to patrol the areas. (WRM 2002)

     The destruction that has occurred in recent decades along with the detrimental Cyclone Nargis has heavily damaged the forests. Not only did the cyclone destroy 30% of the forests, causing industries like farming and fishing to struggle, but timber use as an income source has also created problems. (VTA Survey 2008)

The Root of it All

Mangrove Forest in Lampi Island Marine National Park, Burma

This image shows one of the mangrove forest ecosystems in Burma, and common characteristics of this region including the complex roots, palms, and saltwater can be viewed. 

Photo: Mergui Archipelago Biodiversity Project

Stilted Roots

From the lower branches of the tree or plant, aerial roots branch out and grow harder. They become shallow stands which support the position of the adult tree or plant. (Tomlinson 1994)

The two photos above show images of the stilt roots that plants, including the species Rhizopora and Ceriop that grow in mangrove coastal forests. The roots grow harder and are essentially intertwined and stable to support the adult tree. (Tomlinson 1994)

http://travel.mongabay.com/panama/600/pan01-0724.jpg

http://homepage.mac.com/patholleran/ParkVision/Everglades/Evg-119.jpg

Pneumatophores

They have a buried root system, and grow outward from the center and come above ground as vertical roots in various heights. (Tomlinson 1994)

These buried root systems grow outward from the center and then the roots, as seen in the pictures, begin to grow upwards and vary in height. (Tomlinson 1994)

http://www.seabean.com/guide/Avicennia_germinans/jpg/Avicennia_germinans-pneumatophores-02.jpg

http://coastal.beg.utexas.edu/thscmp/images/mustangisland/blackmangrove.jpg

Knee Root and Buttress Root

Knee roots emerge from the ground and then loop back in whereas buttress or plank roots grow outward then upward.

As seen from the two photos above, these horizontal roots grow upward in circular formations, although each looks uniquely different from one another. (Tomlinson 1994)

http://wiki.trin.org.au/pub/Mangroves/RootType/Bruguiera_gymnorhiza_roots.jpg

http://images.wikia.com/analytical/images/a/ae/Buttressroot.jpg

Where & What

Mangrove Forests in the Delta of the Irrawaddy River

This is Burma's biggest river. It runs north to south.

This map displays a closer look at Burma specifically and in particular the Irrawaddy River, where coastal mangroves can be found in this nation.

http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/44631000/gif/_44631583_burma_irrawaddy.gif

What are Mangroves?

They include trees, shrubs, palms, and ground ferns that grow in tropical and subtropical tidelands and occur in saltwater areas. Mangroves also have unique and intricate roots- including stilted roots, pneumatophores, root knees, and buttress roots. Tomlinson (1994) They are beneficial in that they have rich soil, which builds up the land and allows the flora and fauna in the ecosystem to flourish and thrive. Mangroves also prevent the erosion of river banks by tidal waves and currents. Moreover, the trees bear fruit and flowers, thus are nutrient rich and supply food to the animals in the region. Animals such as monkeys, insects, snakes, fish and fish-eating birds reside in these mangroves. (Arakan Rivers Network 2009)

Location, Location, Location

Where is Burma (Myanmar)? 

It is the biggest country in Southeast Asia, as well as the 40th largest country in the world (only slightly smaller than Texas).

Burma can be seen on this map to the left of Bangladesh and the upper right from Thailand. It is located in Southeast Asia and this map shows its location relative to Southeast Asia as a whole.

http://www.exploreworldwide.com/images/template/world-map.jpg

The Endangered Coastal Mangrove Forests of Burma

    Burma (Myanmar) is located in Southeast Asia. It is the 40^th largest country in the world and the largest in Southeast Asia. It is slightly smaller than the state of Texas. Burma is a tropical area and a biodiversity gem. The Irrawaddy Delta area is an important feature of Burma’s biodiversity. The Irrawaddy River rivers flow through wide central plains down to mangrove-lined river deltas, and empties into the Bay of Bengal.  (Foundation for Environmental Conservation 2005)

      It contains lush, dense forests that cover about half of its area and a diverse mix of plants and wildlife including tigers, elephants, monkeys, turtles (many of which are endemic) and pythons. (Kermode 1964)


Global Distribution of Mangroves

This image shows the locations in which coastal mangrove ecosystems are presently distributed. These places are marked with green highlights. Some of these locations include the coasts of Africa, the Americas (including the continental US, Central America, and the Caribbean including Belize, and South America), Asia (including Indonesia and Pakistan), the Middle East, Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.

http://cache.gawkerassets.com/assets/images/8/2011/04/800px-world_map_mangrove_distribution.png

How Does the Future Appear for the Mangrove Forests?

     Sanctuaries and reserves to protect the mangroves have been established, along with legislation to maintain the mangrove forests. However, although legislation like the Myanmar Forest Policy of 1995 and Forest Act of 1902, made the forest reserves legally protected, no control over the extraction of forest resources has actually occurred. (WCMC 1997)

Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary 1986: established to protect mangroves. 52.79 square miles.

This sanctuary was created as a protected area of high conservation importance and located in the lower Burmese island of Mein-ma-hla.

   Wunbaik Forest Reserve, Rakhine State (22,919 hectares of mangroves)

This reserve is one of the largest mangrove forest reserves in this location and strives to conserve the biodiversity of the region. This map is an image of its location.

http://coin.fao.org/cms/media/4/12735542238790/faor_newslettervol_2.pdf

  
      The Burma Forest Act of 1902 allowed the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests to establish game sanctuaries and reserved forests on any land at the disposal of the government, placing responsibility for their management and protection on the Forest Department. Furthermore, the Myanmar Forest Policy of 1995 called for the protection of biodiversity and the environment, sustainability of forest resources, maintaining basic needs of the people for things such as shelter and food, harnessing the full economic potential of the forest without exploitation, participation of the people to maintain the forests and public awareness of their vital role. They introduced a system of environmental pricing to compensate for environmental degradation. They also established forest development through regeneration and rehabilitation operations. The policy aimed to get people involved and generate awareness in order to conserve the forests. (WCMC 1997)

     But illegal logging is more prevalent than legal logging concessions and implementation of conservation and protection activity is poor. This is due to the Forest Department's inadequate budget, including a shortage of staff to policy and monitor the few protected areas. The corrupt government and uneducated masses have contributed to the grim future for the forests. (FREDA)

What Can We Do?

     To alleviate the problem and turn the situation around, a wholehearted effort from the local population and the government or outside organizations is needed. Locals need to be educated on the importance of mangrove forests so that will begin to maintain and respect the mangroves. Mangrove forests support a wide array of wildlife, act as a carbon sink removing greenhouse gasses from the air, and can protect humans/settlements from rising tides, winds and waves from storms. (Post Nargis Joint Assessment Report 2008) Thus on a local level the people must be educated and they must stop cutting down the forests for timber. On a larger scale, explicit regulations on maintaining, protecting and rehabilitating mangrove forests need to be established and proper resources need to be allocated to ensure the regulations are enforced. Commercially, they should reduce the number of prawn and fish farms, as well as reduce deforestation or increase replanting. The government must research a proper plan since the right combination of species and sites must be chosen to successfully re-establish mangroves. They should implement guidelines for actual mangrove management and increase funding for law enforcement to truly patrol these areas. On a global scale, refusing to purchase the shrimp, fish, timber or rice from these converted mangroves is an indirect way of protecting the mangroves from abroad.

 (FREDA Ohn, 2008)

Mangrove Area in the Irrawaddy Delta

Note that analysis of mangrove information is complicated due to the use of different methodologies and conversion factors (acres to hectares). 

This graphical analysis covers a wide time span of approximately 80 years and demonstrates the alarming decline of mangroves in the area between 1924 and 2001. This data is the basis of our conclusions regarding the rapid degradation and depletion of mangroves, for farming and food production, that has occurred. (FAO 2002)
(FAO 2002)
(Myanmar Forestry Statistics 2006)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/J1533E59.gif

References

•Berg, Linda. Visualizing Environmental Science, 2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2009.

•FAO. (1983c). Irrawaddy Delta: potential for nature conservation and recreation. Nature

•Conservation and National Parks Project FO:BUR/80/006. Field Report 23/83. FAO, Rangoon

•http://www.aseansec.org/21765.pdf.

•http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/65/Burma.html

•http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1404_full.html

•http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/j1533e52.htm

•http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=19271

•http://www.essortment.com/all/mangroverootfu_rnrq.ht
Dudley Stamp, L. "Notes on the Vegetation of Burma
JSTOR: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 64 No. 3 Sept. 1924